Climate Change In The Cradle Of Civilization History Essay

Climate Change In The Cradle Of Civilization History Essay The Fertile Crescent is a region in Western Asia, where ancient civilizations have developed. Population increases and intermittent dry spells in the region have resulted in agricultural innovations. The reason why this region is being called as Fertile Crescent is the fertile land and optimal climate conditions. Geographically speaking this area has been determined by Albert T. Clay as follow; The fertile crescent refers to an ancient area of fertile soil and important rivers stretching in an arc from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates. It covers Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq. The Mediterranean lies on the outside edge of the arc. To the south of the arc is the Arabian Desert. On the east, the Fertile Crescent extends to the Persian Gulf. Geologically, this corresponds with where Iranian, African, and Arabian tectonic plates meet.  [2]   Furthermore, ancient history has showed us a positive correlation between fertile soil or appropriate climatic conditions and development of civilization. Therefore, Fertile Crescent which is also known as the cradle of civilization is the place where is believed to be home not only for the birthplace of various human civilizations but also other significant developments like writing and wheel. Appropriate climatic conditions are vitally important factor on development of civilizations. And the reason behind the occurrence of first civilizations in Fertile Crescent is the agricultural production that fed by the rain. Moreover, As a result of agricultural production and long term settlement, some of the first cities of human being on world have occurred in the Fertile Crescent. Many different civilizations like Natufians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Amorites, the Hittites, and  Assyrians have accrued in the  in this small region of the world. Researches on proxy records and excavations show the period of climate changes are often correspond to social change period as well. In other word, climate changes have crucial impacts on development of societies and its particularity. In this research paper, Im going to look over the major Climate Change in the Fertile Crescent from 10,000 B.C. to 2,000 B.C. Particularly, to con on how the climate influence agriculture and what kind of impact it had on civilizations that occurred in that region.   11,000 to 10,000 B.C. Younger Dryas 15.000 year ago, the impact of Ice Age chill extended into the heart of south-western Asia. From Greece to Egypt, the eastern Mediterranean lay under the influence of north-easterly anticyclonic winds that blew from the high-pressure masses over the Scandinavian and Siberian ice sheets.  [3]  Even though there were regular rainfalls the weather was dry. Tauros Mountains in Turkey, Jordan rift valley and Sinai Peninsula were seasonal landscapes where most of the Ice Age Bands lived in. Main source of nutrition were seeds and fruits, which depended on seasonal rainfalls. When the great warming began, the northeasterlies subsided. Moister air flows from Atlantic and Mediterranean brought higher rainfalls. Warmer conditions after 13,000 B.C. saw a rapid increase in acorn-rich oak forests, documented in pollen samples from ancient lake beds in eastern Iran, the Jordan Valley, and other locations  [4]  . With the impact of great warming, small bands that lived over a vast area of Fertile Crescent become highly mobile. This means larger territories for hunters. When it comes about 11,000 B.C. a series of drought have occurred, which has endured for many generations: Younger Dryas. Younger Dryas is a major cooling and drying climatic event with global impact for human settlement, subsistence and influenced cultural developments at the origins of agriculture  [5]  . Several scientists have developed different theories about resolution of climatic and environmental reconstructions across the transition to agriculture and development of societies. One of the most accepted theory has been developed by Gordon Childe which is named as Propinquity Theory. Childe argues that a desiccation trend forced humans into close contact with plants and animals surrounding permanent water sources. However many theorists came later have disproved Childes theory. Natalie D. Munro express those pro-arguments against Childes theory as follow climatic instability introduced by the Younger Dryas reduced the distribution of cereal crops, lowered carrying capacity, and thus uprooted the sedentary way of life that began 14.5-13/12.8 thousand calibrated years ago  [6]   In order to lighten the relations between climate change and development of civilization during the period of Younger Dryas, different studies have been focus on settlement of Abu Hureyra(à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 11,500 B.C), which is located at Euphrates  valley in modern Syria. Natufians were the first known settlers of Abu Hureyra. It has been stated that Theres nothing particularly distinctive about Natufian toolkit: the people relied on the same simple hunting weapons as their neighbours and predecessors. But a glance at their artefacts highlights the importance of plants foods in their lives such as pastels employed for pounding nuts or numerous mortars  [7]  . Food like acorns and pistachios were vitally important storable surpluses for Natufians, which kept them in same location. For about 500 years, the Abu Hureyra people(Natufians) had meat supply from hunting gazelles as well. In the course of time, constant food surpluses created bigger communities. However, a rapidly growin g population brought conflicts over foods particularly in dry years. After about 11,000 B.C. the classic strategies of social flexibility and mobility no longer sufficed, not only Abu Hureyrans, but also thousands of people living elsewhere in southern Asia. According to Brain Fagan no longer could people simply move away to better-watered locations, or fall back on less favoured ones.  [8]  By passage of time, population located in many parts of Fertile Crescent have increased and they start to become less mobile. New permanent locations were defenceless to any rapid climatic shifts, particularly to long drought events. There are different theories on why and how the Younger Dryas has happened. One of the most accepted theory argues that the Younger Dryas was caused by a significant reduction or shutdown of the North Atlantic  thermohaline circulation. However, geological evidence is standing far away from this theory. In fact, what has been more important for people of Abu Hureyra and other small communities around Fertile Crescent was dramati c temperature fluctuation. People struggled to maintain their lives because they have stopped to gather fruits from trees, nuts from the forest which were in a not reachable distance anymore. Only 400 years later wild cereal vanished and even pistachios became less common. In the length of time, landscape became more arid and the people became familiar to drier weather. However, the fight between nature and mankind remained and they took the next virtual step of civilization. In about 10,000 B.C., people start to domesticate seeds (rye, einkorn, and lentils)  [9]  However, because of bigger population the problem of vegetation still remained. As a result, its necessary to underline that the extreme cooling of climate, Younger Dryas, could have great impacts on civilizations as it has impeded the progress of early civilization. 10,000 B.C. to 8,000 Domestication So far my research question has focus only on what happened during Younger Dryas event and pre-conditions for possible first farmers of mankind in history. But there are still remaining questions to be answer in order to reveal the relation between climate change and its consequences on civilizations. Todays advance technology and knowledge provides various way of travelling to past so as to understand the history of civilization. Recently, many different techniques/methods like tree rings, ice cores, mineral deposits, etc. have been developed by scientist for that purpose. Different ice core researches have provided us some of the most significant and exciting paleoclimate discoveries of the past. A research which has been done by an international team head by Richard Alley provided great information about climate records of hundred thousand years before present. Figure 1 provides information about snowfall and temperature ( °F) based on ice core data between à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 18,000 BC to today. Figure 1 Greenland last ice core climate record greenlandTempRecent.png Source: Alley, The Two-Mile Time Machine, 2001. The temperature records from Younger dryas period show a clear picture of big freeze in world climate. As it can be seen from the figure when it comes to about 11,000 B.C, temperature record on ice core shows a radical change in temperature. Around 9,500 B.C., warming resumed and that was the end of Younger dryas. As the temperatures rose the world became warmer. And inevitably Favourable climatic conditions brought steady improvements in the Fertile Crescent environment, which encouraged the growth and spread of wild plants and animals that constituted food supply for an increasing human population.  [10]   Going back to the late Natufian settlements, a possible picture of Abu Hureyra after Younger dryas would be like that: some men would still hunt the gazelles every spring but in a harder condition because of the over demand. However, climatic condition would be much more adequate for people because of warmer temperatures and increased rainfall. Pistachio and acorn trees would start to bloomed again and the forests which have been disappeared during Younger dryas would soon flourish again. In addition, Jared Diamond argues that in this period the hunter-gatherers of Abu Hureyra evidently knew the local wild plants and they used that knowledge to select and bring home only the most useful available seed plants.  [11]  However they were not aware of the fact of being the first civilization who domesticated the plant. The first undisputed archaeological evidence for plant domestication comes from the Levant, a region on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean which includes present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and Palestine. At numerous sites throughout this area, evidence of the cultivation of emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, peas, flax, chick peas, bitter vetch, and barely has been discovered.  [12]  Assorted excavations from this area have the earliest determined date for plant (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 8,500 B.C) and animal (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 8,000 B.C.) domestication. However, Fertile Crescent was not the only location where domestication took place about that time. Surprisingly, dates for China are quite close to the Fertile Crescents as well. Wheat, pea, olive, dog, sheep and goat were the first plants and animals which have been domesticated in Fertile Crescent. On the other hand, rice, millet, pig and silkworms were the subjects of domestication in China. Mesoamerica (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 3,500 B.C. ) has been another independent origin of domestication in history. Evidently, domestication revealed independently in different geographical location in the world; within a few thousand years. During my research I have realise that many scientists who developed theories on agricultural origins (like Gordon Childe, Ronald Wright, Charlie  Byrne,   Robert Braidwood etc.) have focus on the worldwide synchrony of domestication and they have turn to climatic and environmental changes as an explanation of first agriculture. Particularly, its well accepted that there were radical and rapid climate changes took place with the final recession of the ice sheets. However, these theories have not been enough strong to convince the argument of similar climatic and environmental instabilities have happened many times in the past without sparking agriculture. For that reason, personally I believe that instead of a universal theory of origins of agriculture regional explanation approaches are m ore logical. Except few scientists many archaeologists have agreed on the Fertile Crescent as the location for earliest agriculture. What make the Fertile Crescent being the birthplace early agriculture are undoubtedly the conditions. Frank Hole, an archaeologist in Yale University, described the precondition of Fertile Crescent for the plants domestication as follow: 1) foods of high quality are abundant and can be stored, 2) there is severe seasonal availability of these foods, 3) the territory is such that the people cannot override the limiting effects of seasonality on food resources through transhumance, 4) the territory or the resources themselves can be modified by humans to increase their yields, and 5) non-food commodities such as dung, wool, antlers, bitumen, obsidian, and so on, can be stockpiled  [13]  He believes that the most the most important pre-conditions are possibly number 2 and 3. Personally, I believe that the fact of being able know how to store the high quality seeds is the most important pre-condition for domestication. Archaeological evidence on development of storages methods before domestication period in Jordan Valley show us the importance of this pre-condition to us clearly. Overall, when the essential plant species occurred in the region, people of Fertile Crescent have join the progress plant domestication necessarily. They have learned to gather and process the plant foods in sufficient amount, safety method(s) to store them, and distribute them. Another factor that had impact on domestication has been the rise in the sea levels. Increasing evapo-transpiration at the end of Pleistocene led to the drying of lakes and a rise in sea levels also would have affected the abundance and pacing of resources  [14]  . This conditions push the late Natufians took the first brave step towards cereals planting. This development has been very important for human being because it enhanced a food supply system. On the other hand studies form Abbo et al. concludes as follow; We argue against climate change being at the origin of Near Eastern agriculture and believe that a slow but real climatic change is unlikely to induce revolutionary cultural changes.  [15]  However, factors related to climate change are not the only ones that had impact on the domestication. Cultural settings, changing of landscape and changes in plants and fauna are other factors which have shaped the domestication as well. 8,000 B.C. to 5,800 B.C. Spread of Agriculture and the 8.2ky Collapse After domestication took place in the Fertile Crescent spread of seeds became inevitable. Soon after food production arose there [in the Fertile Crescent], somewhat before 8000 B.C., a centrifugal wave of it [spread], appeared in other parts of western Eurasia and North Africa farther and farther removed from the Fertile Crescent, to the west and east.  [16]  According to Diamond, the rapid spread had reached different locations as in the figure. Figure 2: The spread of Fertile Crescent crops across western Eurasia Source: Diamond; 1997; 181. Diamond emphasizes that the because of the geographical characters of Eurasia spread of agriculture from the Fertile Crescent into Europe, Asia, and North Africa was much faster than in other parts of the world. Any civilization where domestication of plants and animals arrived they ensured steady food supply as well. Naturally, population rose and villages became bigger and bigger to cities. When people of different locations became farmer, in a short period some the small villages took their first step toward being the cradle of many civilizations. By 8,300 B.C., farming villages flourished on the Anatolia plateau in central Turkey, some of them close to sources of lustrous obsidian, fine-grained volcanic glass much prized for tool making and ornaments.  [17]  Approximately in 7500 B.C., one of the extraordinary settlements that flourished in Anatolia was Çatalhà ¶yà ¼k which covers 13 hectares. Çatalhà ¶yà ¼k was an enormous settlement because many early farming villages covered around only one hectare. Studies show people of Çatalhà ¶yà ¼k were advanced in cereal agriculture and method to store them. This led them to grow rapidly and develop their civilization further. Another village was settled in the Jordan Valley names as Jericho, which was about 4 hectares. As Çatalhà ¶yà ¼k, Jaricho was also advanced in agriculture. In addition, becau se of their locations both villages grew from the benefits of long-distance trade. Probably, socio-economic conditions of early agricultural settlements in Levant, northern Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Balkans and eastern Mediterranean increased steadily until about 6,200 B.C. However, when Earths surface warmed again second post-glacial climate event, which is known as Laurentide ice sheet collapse, took place. When a big ice sheet collapsed, enormous amount of meltwater flowed out to the Gulf of Mexico and North Atlantic. This climate change led similar climate condition in Europe which happened during the Younger Dryas. Figure 3 shows Greenland ice climatic records extending to the last glacial maximum. In 6,200 B.C., the Lautentide collapse can be observed clearly. After the collapse, instead of warm and rainy weather of Mediterranean climate, Fertile Crescent occupied by colder and drier weather of northerner pattern. That was start of a disaster for many farming societies in Mesopotamia, Anatolia and even in Balkans. During the period of deglaciation that preceded the abrupt climate event of 6,400-6,000 B.C., a remnant Laurentide ice mass occupied Hudson Bay and served as an ice dam for glacial lakes Agassiz and Ojibway. The rapid collapse of ice in Hudson Bay allowed lakes Agassiz and Ojibway, which had previously discharged over spillways south-eastwards to the St Lawrence estuary, to drain swiftly northwards through the Hudson Strait to the Labrador Sea  [18]   Figure 3 Greenland ice climatic records extending to the last glacial maximum. Source: Fagan; 2004; 24 Research conducted by Shuman et al. about the event shows the result from lake level measurements and pollen data. Both data address the same result: a rapid climate change in North American happen because of the Laurentide Ice Sheet.  [19]  This rapid chance in climate is known as 6,200 B.C. or 8.2 kilo year(ky) event. In the same research authors questions the reason of the 8.2 ky event as well. Rapid transitions may result from abrupt changes in regional or global climatic controls that do not rapidly reverse whereas climatic oscillations appear to be the product of temporary forcing, such as meltwater pulses or glacial surges.  [20]   Another simulation research that has been carried out by various scientists on Rapid early Holocene deglaciation of the Laurentide concluded that during the 8.2 ky event melting water from Laurentide Ice Sheet rose the lakes Agassiz level about 1.3 and 0.7 cm of per year.  [21]  What is more important, a rapid rise in ocean level resulted floods at various places in the world. The results show a disastrous rise in global sea level which led to the flooding of the Euxine Lake and resulted a dramatic social change particularly in Southern Europe, Anatolia, and eastern Mediterranean Climate history proves that within about 4000 years the balances of climate changed again. The conditions push back the development of early civilizations again as it did during the Younger Dryas. Melting water from the Laurentide Ice Sheet resulted in Atlantic circulation again. However, there are controversial opinions about impacts of the 8.2ky event among historians and scientists. Some of them like Staubwasser and Weninger argue that there is a strong correlation between 8.2ky and cultural, social and economical changes in the Neolithic phase.  [22]  ,  [23]  They claims that the event had virtual impact on many of the farming villages including Çatalhà ¶yà ¼k, Jaricho, and Abu Hureyra for 400 years. Weninger et al. have put forward that the rapid spread of early farming to South-East Europe can be most plausibly understood as a direct and immediate reaction to abrupt climate forcing. The spread of early farming to South East Europe was extremely rapid and entirely synchronous with the catastrophic collapse of the ice dome above Hudson Bay at 8200 cal yr BP, many thousands of miles away  [24]  On the other hand, personally I think not many scientists have doubt about effect of this 8.2ky event on environmental settings. However, there are some suspicions about how this event affected developments of civilization. For instance, Weninger et al. proposed that the earliest pottery which has been discovered in Greece is associated with the incoming farming communities.  [25]  However, Budja, an archaeologist from University of Ljubljana, refuted this argument by claiming that potteries come out before the 8,200 B.P. within the hunter-gather framework at Danube Gorge, a region in Balkans.  [26]  Budja putting forth his argument by touching the first agriculture and animal domestication in Balkans but his argument has not been feeble because of lacking in evident. However, there are high number of scientist who believes that when 8,2 ky event happed farming villages were already settled near main European rivers. Furthermore, most probably, new climate condition pushed the farmers to the rivers and shore of lakes. Perhaps, people of Çatalhà ¶yà ¼k moved to western and southern coasts of Euxine Lake to remain their life at a place where the soil was still fertile and the weather conditions were favourable for farming. Unfortunately,  there is no reliable source of  information about these settlements yet. When it comes to the life in the Fertile Crescent, not much has been changed during the past centuries there. People were using the simple tools for agriculture and hunting. They did not have the knowledge and technical skills of using complex working tools. The distinction between role of the men and woman in society were still similar as after the Younger Dryas period. Fagan express the situation of societies in Fertile Crescent as follow: since people were still dispersed on patches of easily cultivated soil, they had space to pursue game, catch fish with traps and nets, and fora ge for grasses, fruit, tubers, and nuts in grassland and forest. Sedentary and farmers might be but their simple agricultural economy and regular depends on the game and wild plant foods gave them flexibility unheard of in later agricultural societies.  [27]  Overall, the 8,2 ky event has not been virtually determinative factor on development of the civilization in Fertile Crescent. However, when it came to 5,800 B.C., Atlantic circulation changed again, the moister conditions of Mediterranean weather turn back to the Levant. Before people of Fertile Crescents taking a further step trough path of civilization, another climate catastrophe happened in 5,600 B.C. 5600 B.C to 5400 B.C. Noahs Flood ? By 6,000 B.C., the last ice was coming to an end. The earths temperatures were raising consequently, North ice sheets were melting. That caused the rise of the World Ocean and pushing the Mediterranean Sea towards the Black Sea. One of the greatest natural disasters to affect humanity came in about 5,600 B.C. when the rising waters of the Mediterranean flooded the deep basin of the Euxine Lake, 150 meters below the Marmara, to form the Black Sea  [28]  . For a long time it has been recognized that because of the rise in Ocean level during glacial period, the Black Sea became isolated by Mediterranean and Marmara seas. Another hypothesis which has been widely accepted argues that Euxine Lake became the Black Sea by outflow from Mediterranean and Marmara Seas troughs Dardanelles channel and the Bosporus. However, in 1993 an American, Russian, Bulgarian and Turkish research team began to wonder if there could be a geological explanation for Nohas flood story and they concluded. This research team developed another hypothesis of an abrupt flooding of the Black Sea named as An Abrupt Drowning Of The Black Sea Shelf At 7.5 Kyr Bp  [29]  which argues that the Euxine Lake has been fed with the water coming from large massive ice in the far north. As a result the level of Euxine Lake rose dramatically within thousands of years. Its not difficult to think about the impact of this massive transformation on mankind lived in the region of Anatolia and Southeast Europe. Before coming to the possible impacts it is necessary to go into the details of this transformation. Figure 4 shows the water flows that passed from Euxine Lake/Black Sea trough Bosporus to Aegean and vice versa. Figure 4: Reconstructed Lake and sea levels between 17,000 to 7,500 B.P. Source: Ryan et al, 1997, 122. Note: Aegean (A), Sea of Marmara (M), and Black Seas (BS), and their connections/isolators via the Dardanelles (D) and Bosporus (B) The Laurentide collapse resulted in rise of Atlantic Ocean level until last glacial period. As it can be seen from the figure, in 7,500 B.P. the level of Mediterranean Sea was 15m lower than shorelines while this number was 30m in 9,000 B.P and 90m in 14,000 B.P. Moreover, as the Black Sea [Euxine Lake] was in very close vicinity to the Scandinavian-Russian ice cap, the melting water from the glaciers were supplied into the Black Sea through the major drainage system constituted by large European rivers (Danube, Dniepr, Dniestr and Bug)  [30]  By 5,600 B.C, Black Sea flood took place. Fagan described as fallow the Sea of Marmara was lapping at the edge of a shrinking berm. within days, the stream became a torrent, then a roiling waterfall flowing at over 90 km an hour. Soon the fertile deltas and river valleys vanished under water. The largest freshwater lake in the world rose at an average rate of 15 centimetres a day  [31]  . As it can be seen from the figure in a year late r the lake Euxine filled by the sea water came from Aegean and Marmara seas. In other word, Euxine Lake turned to be Black Sea in a short time period. This climate event has been related to the Noahs Flood by some scientists and editors of popular newspapers quite often. However, so far any hypothesis has not been enough to convince the scientific world. Going back to the main concern of this research paper, one of the greatest natural disasters that affect civilization was the Noahs Flood in about 5,600 B.C. And of course this climate event also had strong impacts not only on farming villages of Fertile Crescent, but also the settlements in Balkans and eastern Mediterranean. There are not enough sources to develop predicted results of the flood yet. But there is no doubted that such climate event may have been one of the most distractive event the earth have ever see. If Black Sea or Nohas Flood really did occur, it would be a monumental event in the development of civilization. I would have scared a large number of people to others part of the world and it would certainly change how later civilization would have evolved. Its uncertain how many people might have been affected by the flood. Probably, few hundred thousand of people have been affected by the flood. This number may not be so drastic if not taking account the world popul ation of this period. According to historian Luc-Normand Tellier from Quà ©bec University, before the appearance of agriculture total world population never exceed fifteen million inhabitants.  [32]  Overall, this event probably diminished a huge proportion of world population. Its believed that the spread of agriculture from Fertile Crescent to Europe, with migration of early farmers, in a short period is another consequence of the Black Sea flood. Probably, most of the early civilizations settlements, where the flood had reached have experience the harmful results of the flood like hunger, diseases, deaths, migrations. To sum up, this climate event had great impact on civilizations of the Fertile Crescent and other regions alongside. 5,800 B.C to 2,000 B.C. Climate Change and Sumerians The water [Black Sea flood] stabilized after about two years. Hundreds of villages lay deep below the now-saltwater sea. Settlements far inland now lay at the head of sheltered days or exposed to the fury of cold winter storms blowing onshore. But life went on as it always had, in a landscape dissected by countless rivers that led inland into an unknown terrain of endless for

The Day Labor Market in Phoenix, Arizona Essay -- Business Economics U

The Day Labor Market in Phoenix, Arizona Introduction This paper focuses on the Macehualli Day Labor Union located in Phoenix, Arizona in the 85032 area. Throughout the history of the United States, illegal immigrants have come from all over the world to find work and a better way of life. It is estimated that right now there are about seven million illegal aliens living in America. About 69% of these illegal immigrants are Mexican and over 283,000 of them live in Arizona1. In this paper, we presuppose that the illegal aliens we refer to are Mexican. This is because the aliens living in the geographic area around the day labor center we examine are over 99% Mexican (Reza, 2003, personal interview). Many Mexicans risk everything they have, including their lives, in their attempts to cross the border and live the â€Å"American Dream.† Most immigrants are motivated by the lure of lucrative employment across the border. They come to this country with the hope of finding a higher paying job. In most cases, the immigrants are young men who leave their families behind, but intend to earn enough money to eventually bring their loved ones across (Reza, 2003, personal interview). Over the past three decades, the influx of illegal immigrants has become even more noticeable (Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1999). In the year 2000, unauthorized immigrants accounted for about 2.5% of the U.S. population2. These immigrants’ illegal status is a serious obstacle in their search for employment. Almost all employers require some proof of United States citizenship. For citizens and legal immigrants, this is easily established through a driver’s license or state identification card. Illegal workers, on the other hand, obvi... .... 11 Jun. 2003. Day Labor Union Workers. Personal Interview. 25 Oct. 2003 Gonzalez, Daniel. â€Å"Future Will Require Immigrants by Millions for Jobs, Report Says.† The Arizona Republic 31 Aug. 2003 : A6. Reza, Salvador (Director of the Macehualli Day Labor Union). Personal Interview. 25 Oct. 2003. Smart pages. 2 Dec. 2003 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. â€Å"Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: 1999 to 2000† 2 Dec. 2003 . U.S. Department of Labor. 2 Dec. 2003 minimumwage.htm>. Valenzuela, Abel Jr. â€Å"Day Labourers as Entrepreneurs?† Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 27.2 (2001) : 335-352 Valenzuela, Abel Jr. â€Å"Day Labor Work† Annual Review of Sociology 29 (2003) : 307-33

Precautionary Principle

Precautionary Principle The precautionary principle was arguably developed and originally implemented in Germany and Sweden, and it is these nations that remain the leading proponents of it. For example, it was one of these nations (Germany) that put the precautionary principle on the international stage, and today with regard to environmental regulation (in particular chemicals) it is Sweden that is pushing forward precautionary legislation in the European Union. There is a conflict between those who support the principle and those who oppose it. For example, American policy-makers have become increasingly concerned with the use of the concept by the EU, seeing it as a threat to scientific risk analysis as the main tool for regulation used hitherto. Academics in the United States point out that the US had precautionary elements in their regulations during the 1970s; but these elements turned out to be excessively costly and faulty, and so were abandoned following a Supreme Court judgment in 1980 (in an infamous case concerning benzene) which insisted that regulation must depend on scientific proof of risk. There is no one definition of the precautionary principle. One Swedish author, Per Sandin, lists 19 formulations, often individually vague and mutually contradictory. [1] The most commonly used definition is contained in the 1992 Rio Declaration, which stated that in order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. One of the more rigorous analyze of the meanings of the precautionary principle have been put forward in work by Wiener and Rogers. They argue that there are three different formulations of the precautionary principle. These are:[2] †¢ Uncertainty does not justify inaction. In its most basic form, the precautionary principle is a principle that permits regulation in the absence of complete evidence about the particular risk scenario. Lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation-Bergen Declaration]. †¢ Uncertainty justifies action. This version of the precautionary approach is more aggressive. †¢ Uncertainty requires shifting the burden and standard of proof. This version of the precautionary principle is the most aggressive. It holds that uncertain risk requires forbidding the potentially risky activity until the proponent of the activity demonstrates that it poses no (or acceptable) risk. In this part of the report, the precautionary principle is analyzed in the context of the World Trade Organization and with respect to: i) GATT and exceptions in Article XX, ii) the Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), and iii) the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). The precautionary principle is the focus of intense debates in the fields of food safety and GMOs, particularly in the World Trade Organization. 3] Tensions over these issues grew in 1998 after an EC moratorium based on the precautionary principle was applied to GM products from the United States, Canada and Argentina. [4] In 2003, the affected exporting countries requested the establishment of a Dispute Settlement Body by the WTO. [5] World Trade Organization (WTO) The World Trade Organization (WTO) emerged on April 15,1994, predicated on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1947. [6] The reforms of this organization introduced ‘resolutions’ regardin g the environment. In its preamble, it mentions the ‘objective of sustainable development’ and â€Å"seeking both to protect and preserve the environment†. [7] In 1995, the Committee on Trade and the Environment was created to promote sustainable development and to identify a relationship between trade and the environment. [8] This Committee was created at the behest of the WTO at the end of the Uruguay Round. [9] WTO legislation since then has ad- dressed trade issues that substantially relate to the environment. 10] In spite of the ‘greening’ efforts to integrate the environment and trade, the WTO continues to pursue its objectives â€Å"by entering into reciprocal and mutually advantageous arrangement directed to the substantial reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade and to the elimination of discriminatory treatment in international relations†. [11] WTO agreements that can potentially apply to ‘GMO restrictive measures’ contained in: Ar t. XX of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1947,[12] The Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS). 13] A concise application of GATT rules to the GMO controversy will probably not allow stringent regulation of transgenic products such as the one by the European Community and consequently, the WTO will not allow the application of the precautionary principle. Among the measures contained in the GATT agreement that may represent a problem for the application of precautionary measures is the definition of a ‘like product’[14] and the ostensible product regulation the WTO has employed for products. 15] If the WTO decides to take this approach under GATT to GMOs, it will be largely impossible to sustain bans on these products. The precautionary principle as well may not survive scrutiny from the WTO since it would need to show sufficient scientific evidence that health effects derive from the consumption of GM products. Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) The SPS agreement was created in 1993, which by WTO parties to help reduce the incidence of non-tariff trade barriers imposed to protect, ostensibly, human, animal or plant life. 16] The WTO describes the focus of the SPS agreement: â€Å"To maintain the sovereign right it deems appropriate, but to ensure that these sovereign rights are not misused for protectionist purposes and do not result in unnecessary barriers to international trade†. [17] The SPS agreement does not provide states with acceptable sanitary standards; instead, it guides governments in establishing SPS rules. These guidelines are aimed at helping WTO members to (1) harmonize standards and (2) to assess the appropriate level of SPS protection based on an assessment of risks. Regarding (1) harmonization, under Art. , it recommends that states base their sanitary measures on international standards, guidelines or recommendations, whenever they exist. (2) With respect to the level of SPS protection, Art. 5 encourages states to base their sanitary standards of risks on scientific evidence. The precautionary principle or at least parts of this principle can be found in various parts of the SPS agreement. [18] Precaution is specifically incorporated in (1) the levels of protection, mentions that states can determine â€Å"the appropriate level of protection of human, animal or plant life or health†. 19] (2) In Art. 3. 3, which is precautionary in nature, the level of protection that can be implemented by states is addressed in the following manner: â€Å"members may introduce or maintain sanitary or Phytosanitary measures which result in a higher level of protection than would be achieved on measures based on the international standards†[20] and (3) Art. 5. 7, states that states can adopt higher standards provisionally â€Å"in cases where relevant scientific evidence is insufficient†. 21] The first case to put to t he test precautionary measures under the SPS was the Beef Hormones Dispute,[22] which was based on an embargo imposed by the European Community against US beef treated with artificial growth-enhancing hormones. This case seems to indicate how the WTO applies the precautionary principle. In this case, the European Community did not look at international standards for selecting the SPS l protection level, namely, in the Codex. According to Art. 3. 3 of this agreement, the EC had a right to increase the level of protection only when the ‘higher protection’ was based on a risk assessment. According to article 5. 7, the EC could have chosen higher standards temporarily until it acquired scientific evidence to support the SPS measures. Accordingly, when countries regulate GMOs, and impose standards more stringent than those found on the international level, they will be required to demonstrate a rational relationship between the regulations and the respective risk assessment. With respect to the precautionary principle, both the WTO panel and the appellate body refused to consider its evolution into a principle of international law. 23] However, they recognized that it was the focus of debate â€Å"among academics, law practitioners, regulators and judges†. [24] The appellate body, though, found that the precautionary principle was ‘reflected’ in the SPS agreement, but did not override the specific obligations in that agreement. [25] Based on the hormones case, the SPS agreement’s version of the precautionary principle relies on a scientifical ly based risk assessment. This standard is not likely to afford protection in cases where scientific evidence has not yet been developed. Nevertheless, countries can impose restrictions based on â€Å"provisional measures† to protect, at least temporarily, human health. The temporary moratorium is still more attractive than any alternative yet devised. Core elements of the precautionary principle have been included in trade agreements, particularly, a) in the SPS agreement, b) in chapter XX of the GATT. Although exceptions in these agreements allude to precaution, the discussion of this principle has been directly addressed under the SPS agreement; particularly, in the Hormone Case. The Appellate Body, in this case, said that the provisions of the SPS Agreement embraced the precautionary principle. [26] This principle, however, has been interpreted as being subordinated to clear and convincing scientific evidence to deal with uncertainties caused by lack of scientific evidence. The WTO, when deciding the case between the US and the EC over the moratorium on transgenic products,[27] is obliged by its own decisions to consider its rules not in isolation but in accordance with international law. 28] The precautionary measures by the EC have to be interpreted in accordance with multilateral environmental agreements. [29] The precautionary principle rests in the hands of the WTO; the way these institutions will interpret this principle will shape the future of protection in the international arena. If the WTO declares illegal the EC moratorium on transgenic products, countries will be reluctant to apply the precautionary principle even when the application of this pr inciple is required by a multilateral environmental agreement such as the Cartagena Protocol. An attack on the precautionary principle by the WTO can result in international conflicts between the trade and environmental regimes. Regional View of Precautionary Principle At the regional level, the precautionary principle has been embraced in different ways. In the European Community (EC), this principle plays a fundamental role in biodiversity and health protection, particularly in the field of GMOs. In North America, this principle does not play as fundamental a role in the North American Free Trade Agreement, but has been tangentially alluded to when GMO issues have been raised. The precautionary principle is particularly essential in the management of risk, which is considered in the EC within a structured approach to the analysis of risk encompassing, such as risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. To apply the precautionary principle, decision makers need to start with a scientific evaluation as comprehensive as possible for the purpose of identifying the degree of uncertainty. [30] Unlike in the European Community, the precautionary principle does not play a central role in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). 31] The principle is, nevertheless somehow embraced in this agreement through national legislation. It can be said, however, that the mere creation of the Commission of Environmental Cooperation (CEC) is a precautionary measure to prevent parties from indiscriminately exploiting the environment in the name of trade. While the CEC furthers environmental protection by promoting citizen complaints, its effectiveness is yet to be seen, particularly in the promotion and endorsement of environmental principles such as the precautionary principle. Conclusion In the areas of trade and environmental law, the GMO debate has escalated to the WTO. This organization, when considering the European moratoriums, will definitely shape the application of this principle. If the WTO finds European regulation to be inconsistent with trade agreements, countries will be less willing to apply this principle. At the regional level, while this principle has not been embraced in NAFTA, core elements are contained in national legislation. Although the precautionary principle has been considered in NAFTA by the CEC, this environmental organization is not fully independent and lacks authority to truly promote environmental values such as the precautionary principle. It has also argued that the precautionary principle is not contrary to science but to provide answers with regard to new technologies and in this case, GMOs. With regard to the foundations of this principle, it was argued that it was based on common sense (natural law), and that some of these elements are embodied in the statute of the international court of justice. The precautionary principle departs from anthropocentric attitudes and encompasses a holistic approach. It is not a definite solution and it will not change the world overnight,[32] but it can make a difference in the protection of human health and the environment by providing guidance to policy makers when considering threats posed by GMOs. Bibliography R. Burnett & V. Bath, Law of International Business in Australasia, The Federation Press, 2009. J. Mo, International Commercial Law, LexisNexis Butterworths, 4th edition, 2008. ———————– 1] P Sandin, ‘Dimensions of the precautionary principle' Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, Vol. 5(1999), n. 5, pp. 889-907. [2] JB Wiener and MD Rogers, ‘Comparing precaution in the United States and Europe', forthcoming in Journal of Risk Research, pp. 4-5. [3] Shaw, Sabrina y Schwartz, Risa, â€Å"The Cartagena Protocol and the WTO: Reflections on the Precautionary Principleâ⠂¬ , 10 Swiss Review of International and European Law at 537. [4] Bridgers, supra note 2, at 181 y 182. [5] Isaac, Grant E. y Kerr, William A. , Genetically Modified Organisms at the World Trade Organization: A Harvest of Trouble (2003) 37 J. World Trade at 1083. [6] Macmil l an, Fiona, WTO and the Environment, London, Sweet & Maxwel l , 2001, at 7. [7] See preamble of Marrakech Agreement of the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A, Legal Instruments of the Uruguay Round vol. 1, 33 ILM 1154 (1994). [8] Macmillan, supra note 92 at 12. [9] Ibidem, at 12 y 13. [10] Ibidem, at 12-16. Among the cases the WTO has addressed are: the Tuna-Dolphin cases, The Automobiles case, The Reformulated Gasoline and the Sea Turtle Case. [11] WTO preamble, supra note 93. [12] General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), Oct. 30, 1947, 61 Stat. A-11 TIAS 1700 UNTS 194, as modified by Marrakech Agreement of the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A, Legal Instruments of the Uruguay Round vol. 1, 33 ILM 1154 (1994). [13] Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) (15 April 1994), & â€Å"WTO Agreement, Annex 1A, 69†. http://www. wto. org/english/docs_e/legal_e/15-sps. pdf. [14] Art. 2. 6 of the Agreement of Implementation of Art. VI of the GATT 1994 on Antidumping and Countervailing Measures reads as follows: â€Å"Throughout this Agreement the term ‘like product’ (product similarity) shall be interpreted to mean a product which is identical, i. . alike in all respects to the product under consideration, or in the absence of such a product, another product which, although not alike in all respects, has characteristics closely resembling those of the product under consideration†. [15] Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT, 1994. http://www. wto. org/english /docs_e/legal_e/19-adp. pdf. [16] Grosko, Brett, â€Å"Genetic Engineering and Internacional Law: Conflict or Harmony? An analysis of the Biosafety Protocol, GATT, and the WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement† (2001) 20 Va. Envtl. L. J. 295 at 308. [17] WTO, â€Å"Understanding the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures†. http://www. wto. org/wto/goods/spsund. htm. [18] Shaw, supra note 88 at 540. [19] SPS agreement, supra note 99, see preamble (1) 6. [20] Ibidem, Article 3. 3. [21] Ibidem, Article 5. 7. [22] EC Measures Concerning Meat & Meat Products, Panel Reports: Case WI/DS26/R/USA, August 18, 1997 & WT/DS48/R/CAN, August 18, 1997; Appellate Body Report: WT/DS26/AB/R&WT/DS48/AB/R, January 16, 1998 in supra note 115. 23] Macmillan, supra note 92 at 153 y 154. [24] Ibidem, at 153 y 154. [25] â€Å"World Trade Organization, summary on the Precautionary Principle,† http://www. wto. org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/sps_agreement_cbt_e/c8s2pl_e. htm. [26] Shaw, supra note 88 at 540. [27] Dispute Settlement Body, Panel WTO: European Communities Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, WT/DS291/27, WT/DS292/21 and WT293/21, http://www. wto. org/english/ tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_subjects_index_e. htm#gmos. 28] Appellate Body Report AB-1996-1,WT/DS2/AB/R at supra note 130. [29] Shaw, supra note 88. [30] Commission of the European Communities, â€Å"Communication of the application of the Precautionary Principle†, (2000). http://europa. eu. int/eur-lex/en/com/cnc/2000/com2000_0001en01. pdf. [31] Raustiala, Kal, â€Å"Precaution in the Federal Legislation of the NAFTA parties†, North America Environmental Law Policy Commission of Environmental Cooperation. http://www. cec. org/files/pdf/lawpolicy/naelp10_en. pdf. [32] Vanderzwaag, supra note 22 at 374 y 375.

Essay Obesity Americans Need to Change Their Way of Life

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Essay about Urban Homelessness in Canada - 2342 Words

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Computer Crimes Laws Must Be Pass To Address The Essay Example For Students

Computer Crimes: Laws Must Be Pass To Address The Essay Increase In ComputerComputer Crimes: Laws Must Be Pass To Address The Increase In Computer CrimesTHESIS: Laws must be passed to address the increase in the number and types ofcomputer crimes. Over the last twenty years, a technological revolution has occurred as computersare now an essential element of todays society. Large computers are used totrack reservations for the airline industry, process billions of dollars forbanks, manufacture products for industry, and conduct major transactions forbusinesses because more and more people now have computers at home and at theoffice. People commit computer crimes because of societys declining ethical standardsmore than any economic need. According to experts, gender is the only bias. Theprofile of todays non-professional thieves crosses all races, age groups andeconomic strata. Computer criminals tend to be relatively honest and in aposition of trust: few would do anything to harm another human, and most do notconsider their crime to be truly dishonest. Most are males: women have tended tobe accomplices, though of late they are becoming more aggressive. ComputerCriminals tend to usually be between the ages of 14-30, they are usually bright,eager, highly motivated, adventuresome, and willing to accept technicalchallenges.(Shannon, 16:2)It is tempting to liken computer criminals to other criminals, ascribingcharacteristics somehow different fromnormal individuals, but that is not the case.(Sharp, 18:3) It is believedthat the computer criminal often marches to the same drum as the potentialvictim but follows and una nticipated path.(Blumenthal, 1:2) There is no actualprofile of a computer criminal because they range from young teens to elders,from black to white, from short to tall. Definitions of computer crime has changed over the years as the users andmisusers of computers have expanded into new areas. When computers were firstintroduced into businesses, computer crime was defined simply as a form ofwhite-collar crime committed inside a computer system.(2600:Summer 92,p.13)Some new terms have been added to the computer criminal vocabulary. TrojanHorse is a hidden code put into a computer program. Logic bombs are implanted sothat the perpetrator doesnt have to physically present himself or herself.(Phrack 12,p.43) Another form of a hidden code is salamis. It came from thebig salami loaves sold in delis years ago. Often people would take smallportions of bites that were taken out of them and then they were secretlyreturned to the shelves in the hopes that no one would notice themmissing.(Phrack 12,p.44)Congress has been reacting to the outbreak of computer crimes. The U.S. Houseof Judiciary Committee approved a bipartisan computer crime bill that wasexpanded to make it a federal crime to hack into credit and other data basesprotected by federal privacy statutes.(Markoff, B 13:1) This bill is generallycreating several categories of federal misdemeanor felonies for unauthorizedaccess to computers to obtain money, goods or services or classified information. This also applies to computers used by the federal government or used ininterstate of foreign commerce which would cover any system accessed byinterstate telecommunication systems. Computer crime often requires more sophistications than people realizeit.(Sullivan, 40:4) Many U.S. businesses have ended up in bankruptcy courtunaware that they have been victimized by disgruntled employees. Americanbusinesses wishes that the computer security nightmare would vanish like a fairytale. Information processing has grown into a gigantic industry. It accountedfor $33 billion in services in 1983, and in 1988 it was accounted to be $88billion. (Blumenthal, B 1:2)All this information is vulnerable to greedy employees, nosy-teenagers andgeneral carelessness, yet no one knows whether the sea of computer crimes isonly as big as the Gulf of Mexico or as huge as the North Atlantic.(Blumenthal,B 1:2) Vulnerability is likely to increase in the future. And by theturn of the century, nearly all of the software to run computers will be boughtfrom vendors rather than developed in houses, standardized software will maketheft easier. (Carley, A 1:1)A two-year secret service investigation code-named Operation Sun-Devil, targetedcompanies all over the United States and led to numerous seizures. Critics ofOperation Sun-Devil claim that the Secret Service and the FBI, which have almosta similar operation, have conducted unreasonable search and seizures, theydisrupted the lives and livelihoods of many people, and generally conductedthemselves in an unconstitutional manner. My whole life changed because of thatoperation. They charged me and I had to take them to court. I have to thank 2600and Emmanuel Goldstein for publishing my story. I owe a lot to the fellowhackers and fellow hackers and the Electronic Frontier Foundation for coming upwith the blunt of the legal fees so we could fight for our rights. (Interviewwith Steve Jackson, fellow hacker, who was charged in operation Sun Devil) Thecase of Steve Jackson Games vs. Secret Service has yet to come to a verdict yetbut should very soon. The secret service seized all of Steve Jacksons computermaterials which he made a l iving on. They charged that he made games thatpublished information on how to commit computer crimes. He was being chargedwith running a underground hack system. I told them it was only a game and thatI was angry and that was the way that I tell a story. I never thought HackerSteve Jacksons game would cause such a problem. My biggest problem was thatthey seized the BBS (Bulletin Board System) and because of that I had to makedrastic cuts, so we laid of eight people out of 18. If the Secret Service hadjust come with a subpoena we could have showed or copied every file in thebuilding for them.(Steve Jackson Interview)Computer professionals are grappling not only with issues of free speech andcivil liberties, but also with how to educate the public and the media to thedifference between on-line computer experimenters. They also point out that,while the computer networks and the results are a new kind of crime, they areprotected by the same laws and freedom of any real world domain. Changes To The Bill Of Rights EssayCONCLUSIONComputer crimes are fast and growing because the evolution of technology is fast,but the evolution of law is slow. While a variety of states have passedlegislation relating to computer crime, the situation is a national problem thatrequires a national solution. Controls can be instituted within industries toprevent such crimes. Protection measures such as hardware identification, accesscontrols software and disconnecting critical bank applications should be devised. However, computers dont commit crimes; people do. The perpetrators bestadvantage is ignorance on the part of those protecting the system. Properinternal controls reduce the opportunity for fraud. BIBLIOGRAPHYAlexander, Charles, Crackdown on Computer Capers,Time, Feb. 8, 1982, V119. Ball, Leslie D., Computer Crime, Technology Review,April 1982, V85. Blumenthal,R. Going Undercover in the Computer Underworld. New York Times, Jan. 26, 1993, B, 1:2. Carley, W. As Computers Flip, People Lose Grip in Saga of Sabatoge at PrintingFirm. Wall Street Journal, Aug. 27, 1992, A, 1:1. Carley, W. In-House Hackers: Rigging Computers for Fraud or Malice Is Often anInside Job. Wall Street Journal, Aug 27, 1992, A, 7:5. Markoff, J. Hackers Indicted on Spy Charges. New York Times, Dec. 8, 1992, B,13:1. Finn, Nancy and Peter, Dont Rely on the Law to Stop Computer Crime, ComputerWorld, Dec. 19, 1984, V18. Phrack Magazine issues 1-46. Compiled by Knight Lightning and Phiber Optik. Shannon, L R. THe Happy Hacker. New York Times, Mar. 21, 1993, 7, 16:2. Sharp, B. The Hacker Crackdown. New York Times, Dec. 20, 1992, 7, 18:3. Sullivan, D. U.S. Charges Young Hackers. New York Times, Nov. 15, 1992, 1,40:4. 2600: The Hacker Quarterly. Issues Summer 92-Spring 93. Compiled by Emmanuel G